Exploring the Relationship Between Parenting Styles and Callous-Unemotional Traits in Early Adolescents

Abstract

This study aims to evaluate the tendency of Callous-Unemotional (CU) traits in early adolescents based on their perceptions of parental parenting styles, specifically authoritarian, democratic, and permissive. The study employs a comparative method with a cross-sectional design. The sample comprises 236 middle school students in Pati Regency, selected using cluster random sampling. Data were collected using two scales: the Callous Unemotional Traits scale and the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ), both of which have been validated for reliability. The results indicate significant differences in CU traits among adolescents based on the type of parenting style (p less than 0.05). Adolescents with authoritarian parenting tend to exhibit higher CU traits compared to those with democratic and permissive parenting styles. Democratic parenting generally results in lower CU traits, while permissive parenting shows varied outcomes. These findings support Baumrind's theory, which suggests that authoritarian parenting, characterized by strict control and lack of freedom, can hinder children's emotional and social development. The practical implications of this study highlight the importance of developing effective parenting strategies by parents and educators to reduce the tendency of CU traits in adolescents. Future research is recommended to involve larger and more diverse samples and to utilize a longitudinal design to better understand the development of CU traits over time.

Abstrak: Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengevaluasi kecenderungan sifat Callous-Unemotional (CU) pada remaja awal berdasarkan persepsi mereka terhadap pola asuh orang tua, yaitu otoriter, demokratis, dan permisif. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode komparatif dengan desain cross-sectional. Sampel terdiri dari 236 siswa SMP di Kabupaten Pati yang dipilih menggunakan teknik cluster random sampling. Data dikumpulkan menggunakan dua skala: Skala Callous Unemotional Traits dan Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ), yang telah diuji validitas dan reliabilitasnya. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan signifikan dalam kecenderungan CU Traits pada remaja berdasarkan tipe pola asuh orang tua (p kurang dari 0,05). Remaja dengan pola asuh otoriter menunjukkan kecenderungan CU Traits yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan remaja yang mendapatkan pola asuh demokratis dan permisif. Pola asuh demokratis cenderung menghasilkan remaja dengan CU Traits yang lebih rendah, sementara pola asuh permisif menunjukkan hasil yang bervariasi. Temuan ini mendukung teori Baumrind yang menyatakan bahwa pola asuh otoriter yang ditandai dengan kontrol yang ketat dan kurangnya kebebasan dapat menghambat perkembangan emosional dan sosial anak. Implikasi praktis dari penelitian ini adalah pentingnya pengembangan strategi pengasuhan yang efektif oleh orang tua dan pendidik untuk mengurangi kecenderungan CU Traits pada remaja. Penelitian selanjutnya direkomendasikan untuk melibatkan sampel yang lebih besar dan lebih beragam serta menggunakan desain longitudinal untuk memahami perkembangan CU Traits dari waktu ke waktu.

Introduction

Early adolescence is a critical period in individual development, characterized by high ambitions, excessive courage, and heightened self-esteem. This stage is vulnerable to emotional upheavals that often manifest in delinquent behaviors, which are difficult for society to accept (Steinberg, 2014). Juvenile delinquency has become a crucial issue that significantly impacts both adolescent development and the field of education (Aini, 2012).

Research indicates that the incidence of violence in Pati Regency increased by 23.19% from 2010 to 2011, with the majority of victims and perpetrators being middle school adolescents. Additionally, studies have revealed that 58.2% of 395 middle school students in Pati Regency have experienced bullying, either as victims or perpetrators, with verbal bullying being the most common form. The high levels of delinquency and emotional instability among adolescents often lead to violent actions, both verbal and physical. These factors highlight the need for greater attention to adolescent mental health and emotional management to reduce incidents of violence in schools (Aini, 2012; Aini, 2016; Olweus, 2013; Finkelhor, 2014).

Adolescents who struggle to express their emotions deeply are likely to face difficulties in preventing criminal behavior, which may increase their risk of becoming offenders. This difficulty is often associated with a low ability to understand and manage emotions, leading to aggressive and antisocial behaviors. Adolescents who cannot effectively express their feelings may also experience excessive frustration, further triggering criminal actions as a form of release. Research shows that adolescents with problems in emotional expression often have low empathy and exhibit irresponsible and impulsive behaviors (Rogers, 2012; Frick & White, 2008; Viding et al., 2012). Factors such as narcissism, low empathy, and poor affective processing also drive delinquent behavior in adolescents (Lahey, 2014). Callous-Unemotional (CU) traits are defined as a lack of concern for the feelings of others, a lack of guilt over harmful behavior, and a tendency to express emotions for personal gain (Lahey, 2014).

Studies show that children with behavioral problems that result in difficulties maintaining social relationships tend to be more aggressive, have worse prognoses, and respond poorly to the emotions of others (Rogness, Javors, & Pliszka, 2019; Frick et al., 2014; Waller & Hyde, 2017; Essau, Sasagawa, & Frick, 2006; Fontaine et al., 2010). The role and involvement of parents are crucial in adolescent development, where poor or inadequate parenting is often linked to delinquent behavior (Davis & Koepke, 2016; Sarifa & Mahanani, 2020; Waller & Hyde, 2017).

Lui et al. (2016) found that increased Callous-Unemotional (CU) traits in children are influenced by the use of physical punishment, inconsistent discipline, and a lack of positive reinforcement from parents. Parenting that relies on physical punishment and fails to provide consistent positive reinforcement tends to create an unstable environment for children, potentially reinforcing CU traits. Although parental parenting styles do not directly cause the development of CU traits, the interaction between inconsistent parenting and a child's temperament can increase the risk of more chronic antisocial behavior (Frick et al., 2003). This underscores the importance of consistent and supportive parenting approaches in preventing the escalation of CU traits and antisocial behavior in adolescents (Waller et al., 2013; Hawes et al., 2011).

Several studies indicate that in addition to inherent factors such as low morality and lack of empathy, parental parenting practices also influence the maintenance of CU traits (Lahey, 2014; Lui et al., 2016; Waller & Hyde, 2017; Hawes, Dadds, Frost, & Russell, 2011). Therefore, it is crucial to differentiate between parenting styles that can predict the increase in CU traits in early adolescents. This study aims to examine the significance of authoritarian, democratic, and permissive parenting styles in influencing the development of CU traits, with a focus on early adolescents who are more vulnerable to emotional conflicts.

Baumrind's (1991) theory of parenting explains how authoritarian, democratic, and permissive parenting styles influence the development of children's personality and behavior. Authoritarian parenting is associated with strict control and limited freedom for children, often leading to obedient behavior but lacking initiative. In contrast, democratic parenting encourages children to be independent and socially responsible by providing freedom accompanied by clear boundaries. Permissive parenting tends to offer broad freedom without adequate control, which can result in undisciplined and impulsive behavior in children (Baumrind, 1991; Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

This study hypothesizes that there are significant differences in the tendency of Callous-Unemotional (CU) traits in early adolescents based on their perceptions of authoritarian, democratic, and permissive parenting styles. Thus, this research not only contributes to the theoretical understanding of the relationship between parenting styles and CU traits but also provides practical implications for parents and educators in developing effective parenting strategies to prevent delinquent behavior in adolescents. This study is expected to help parents understand the importance of balanced and supportive parenting in fostering healthy emotional and social development in their children (Lamborn et al., 1991; Steinberg, 2001).

Methods

Research Design

This study employed a comparative design aimed at comparing the tendencies of Callous-Unemotional (CU) Traits in early adolescents based on their perceptions of parental parenting styles. The comparative design was chosen because it allows for the examination of significant differences between various groups based on specific variables, in this case, the types of parenting styles (Baumrind, 1991).

Research Variables

The independent variable in this study is the parental parenting style, measured across three dimensions: authoritarian, democratic, and permissive. Authoritarian parenting is characterized by strict control and limited freedom for the child (Baumrind, 1991). Democratic parenting encourages children to be independent and socially responsible by providing freedom accompanied by clear boundaries (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Permissive parenting allows broad freedom without adequate control, which can result in children being less disciplined and tending to exhibit impulsive behavior (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

The dependent variable in this study is Callous-Unemotional Traits, which include three dimensions: callousness (a lack of concern for the feelings of others), uncaring (a lack of guilt for harmful behavior), and unemotional (an inability to express emotions) (Frick & White, 2008).

Data Collection Procedure

Data collection was conducted in six public middle schools (SMP) in Pati Regency, selected using a cluster random sampling technique. This technique was chosen to ensure that each school in Pati Regency had an equal chance of being selected as a research sample. After selecting the schools, respondents within those schools were chosen using purposive sampling to ensure they met the inclusion criteria of being between 12 and 15 years old. The total sample size obtained was 236 respondents.

Data collection occurred in several stages. First, the researcher obtained permission from the local education office and the principals of the selected public middle schools. After receiving permission, the researcher explained the purpose and procedure of the study to the students and their parents and obtained written consent from them. Data collection was conducted during school hours with the assistance of teachers. Respondents were asked to complete the two scales independently under the supervision of the researcher and teachers. Clear instructions were provided to ensure respondents understood each item on the scales. This process took 30-45 minutes at each school.

Instruments

Data were collected using two scales that have been tested for validity and reliability: the Callous Unemotional Traits scale and the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ). The Callous Unemotional Traits scale consists of 34 items designed to measure the dimensions of callousness, uncaring, and unemotional traits in adolescents. This scale, developed by Frick et al. (2003), has demonstrated a high reliability coefficient of 0.930, indicating excellent internal consistency. The validity of this scale has been established through various previous studies showing good construct validity, capable of distinguishing between individuals with high and low levels of CU Traits (Frick & White, 2008).

The Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) consists of 60 items designed to measure adolescents' perceptions of their parents' parenting styles, including authoritarian, democratic, and permissive. This scale was developed by Buri (1991) and has been validated using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The validity test results show that the factor structure of the PAQ corresponds with the proposed theoretical model, with each dimension showing significant factor loadings. The reliability coefficients for the PAQ also demonstrate high values, ensuring that this instrument has good internal consistency in measuring parental authority perceptions (Buri, 1991).

Testing the validity and reliability of the measurement instruments is crucial to ensuring that the data obtained are accurate and reliable. The Callous Unemotional Traits scale has undergone validity testing through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, demonstrating that it has a good factor structure and accurately measures the intended constructs (Frick & White, 2008). The reliability coefficient of 0.930 indicates excellent internal consistency. The PAQ has also been validated using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), showing that the proposed theoretical model corresponds with empirical data. Each item on the PAQ has significant factor loadings, indicating that they consistently measure the intended parenting constructs. The high reliability coefficients indicate that the PAQ is a reliable tool for measuring perceptions of parental authority (Buri, 1991).

Sampling Technique

This study used a combination of cluster random sampling and purposive sampling techniques to ensure proper representation of the target population and to address the limitations of accessing the entire population. Cluster random sampling was used to select six public middle schools (SMP) in Pati Regency. This selection was done randomly, with each school having an equal chance of being selected as a research sample. This technique is effective in situations where the population is widely dispersed and difficult to access directly, and it helps reduce research costs and time (Creswell, 2014).

After selecting the schools, purposive sampling was applied to select respondents within those schools. Purposive sampling was used to ensure that the respondents met the inclusion criteria, namely, being between 12 and 15 years old. This technique allows researchers to select individuals who are considered to provide relevant and in-depth information related to the research topic (Patton, 2015). By using a combination of these two techniques, this study aimed to obtain a representative and relevant sample.

Data Analysis Procedure

Data were analyzed using One-Way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) to examine significant differences between groups based on the type of parental authority. One-Way ANOVA was chosen because this technique allows researchers to compare the means of several groups simultaneously and determine whether there are significant differences among them (Field, 2013). Before conducting the ANOVA, normality and homogeneity of variance tests were performed to ensure that the data met the necessary statistical assumptions. The normality test was conducted to evaluate whether the data were normally distributed, while the homogeneity of variance test was conducted to ensure uniformity of variances across groups (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 21.0 software. SPSS was chosen due to its capability to handle various types of statistical data and provide advanced analysis features (Pallant, 2016).

Ethical Considerations

This study received ethical approval from the university's ethics committee, ensuring that all research procedures adhered to the applicable ethical standards. Before data collection, informed consent was obtained from each participant and their parents after they were given a comprehensive explanation of the study's purpose, procedures, benefits, and risks. This was important to ensure that participation in the study was voluntary and based on adequate information (Resnik, 2015). Participants' confidentiality and privacy were strictly maintained during and after the study. Personal data were securely stored and accessed only by authorized researchers. Additionally, research results were reported in aggregate form without revealing the identity of individual participants, thereby protecting their privacy (Israel & Hay, 2006).

Results and Discussion

This section presents the results of the data analysis conducted to evaluate the relationship between parental parenting styles and the tendency of Callous Unemotional (CU) traits in middle school adolescents. The results presented include the demographic description of the respondents, statistical assumption tests, ANOVA analysis results, and Post Hoc analysis results to evaluate significant differences between groups.

Table 1 provides a demographic description of the study respondents, which includes three main categories: Age, Grade, and Living Arrangements. Each category contains information showing the distribution of frequency and percentage of respondents within each category. Table 1 indicates that the age distribution of respondents is relatively balanced, with slightly more respondents aged 14-15 years (50.5%) compared to those aged 12-13 years (49.5%). This shows a good variation in age among the respondent group, which can provide diverse perspectives related to the research topic.

In the grade category, the majority of respondents are from Grade VIII (52.5%), while Grade VII comprises only 17.4% of respondents, and Grade IX accounts for 30.1%. This distribution indicates that the study predominantly involved middle-grade students, who may have different experiences and understandings compared to students from other grades. The living arrangements category shows that most respondents live with both parents (80.1%), while 19.9% live with one parent. This provides an overview of the respondents' family backgrounds, which could be an important factor in understanding their social and emotional contexts.

Table 1. Demographic Description of Respondents (N=236)

Category	Description	Frequency (N)	Percentage (%)
Age	12-13 years	117	49.5
	14-15 years	119	50.5
Grade	Grade VII	41	17.4
	Grade VIII	124	52.5
	Grade IX	71	30.1
Living Arrangements	With Both Parents	189	80.1
	With One Parent	47	19.9

Overall, this demographic data provides a comprehensive overview of the respondent characteristics, which can assist in the interpretation of the research results and in understanding how demographic factors may influence the research findings.

Table 2 presents the results of the normality and homogeneity tests for the residuals of the sample, which consists of 236 respondents. This table includes several important statistical parameters for determining whether the data meet the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance. The results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test show that the Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) value is 0.229, which is greater than 0.05. This indicates that the residual distribution does not differ significantly from a normal distribution, so it can be concluded that the residual data meets the assumption of normality. This is important for the validity of several advanced statistical analyses that assume residual normality.

The results of the Levene's test show a significance value of 0.000, which is less than 0.05. This indicates that the variances between groups are not homogeneous. In other words, there are significant differences in variances among the groups tested. This is crucial because the assumption of homogeneous variances (homoscedasticity) is a prerequisite for analysis of variance (ANOVA) and some regression methods. Overall, the results of the normality test indicate that the residuals are normally distributed, which is a positive indication for the assumption of normality. However, the results of the homogeneity test indicate that the variances are not homogeneous among the groups, which needs to be considered in further statistical analyses. The researcher may need to use statistical methods that do not assume homogeneity of variance or consider data transformation to meet this assumption.

Table 2. Results of Normality and Homogeneity Tests a. Test distribution is Normal. b. Calculated from data.

		Unstandardized Residual	Levene Statistic	df1	df2	Sig.
N		236
Normal Parameters a,b	Mean	.0000000
	Std. Deviation	8.51633484
Most Extreme Differences	Absolute	.068
	Positive	.036
	Negative	-.068
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z		1.040
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)		.229
Levene Statistic			9.630	3	940	.000

Table 3 provides information on the categorization of scores for parenting styles and Callous Unemotional (CU) traits among the 236 respondents. These categories are divided into three types of parenting styles (authoritarian, democratic, permissive) and CU traits, each with ranges of scores, frequencies, and percentages. The majority of respondents (67.8%) fall into the medium category for authoritarian parenting, indicating that most respondents experienced a moderate level of authoritarian parenting. Only 24.2% of respondents experienced high authoritarian parenting, and 8.1% experienced low authoritarian parenting.

The distribution of democratic parenting shows that nearly half of the respondents (48.7%) experienced high democratic parenting, while 47.9% fall into the medium category. Only a small portion (3.4%) experienced low democratic parenting, indicating that democratic parenting tends to be higher compared to authoritarian parenting. Most respondents (79.2%) are in the medium category for permissive parenting, while 16.1% are in the low category. Only 4.7% fall into the high category, indicating that high levels of permissive parenting are less commonly experienced by respondents.

The majority of respondents (89.8%) fall into the medium category for Callous Unemotional traits, indicating that most respondents exhibit CU traits at a moderate level. Only 0.4% are in the high category, and 9.7% fall into the low category. This shows that high CU traits are very rare among respondents. Overall, the data indicates that authoritarian and permissive parenting tend to be at moderate levels, while democratic parenting tends to be higher. The majority of respondents exhibit Callous Unemotional traits at a moderate level, with very few showing these traits at a high level. This information can provide insights into the distribution of various parenting styles and CU traits within the studied sample, which can be useful for further analysis and appropriate interventions.

Table 3. Categorization of Parenting Styles and Callous Unemotional Traits (N=236)

Categorization	Range	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Authoritarian Parenting
High	58-69	57	24.2
Medium	43-57	160	67.8
Low	26-42	19	8.1
Democratic Parenting
High	53-72	115	48.7
Medium	43-52	113	47.9
Low	34-41	8	3.4
Permissive Parenting
High	53-71	11	4.7
Medium	43-52	187	79.2
Low	32-42	38	16.1
Callous Unemotional Traits
High	119-122	1	0.4
Medium	85-118	212	89.8
Low	76-84	23	9.7

Table 4 presents data on the distribution of Callous Unemotional Traits (CU Traits) based on parenting style. This table includes the actual count and expected count of respondents in each CU Traits category (Low, Medium, High) for the three types of parenting styles (Authoritarian, Democratic, Permissive). Table 4 also provides the percentage of total respondents in each CU Traits category. The majority of respondents with authoritarian parenting have CU Traits in the medium category (52 respondents or 22.0% of the total), with an expected count of 26.0. Only one respondent (0.4%) has high CU Traits, matching the expected count of 0.3. This suggests that authoritarian parenting is generally associated with medium CU Traits.

Most respondents with democratic parenting have CU Traits in the medium category (103 respondents or 43.6% of the total), with an expected count of 103.3. There are no respondents in the high CU Traits category, while 12 respondents (5.1%) are in the low category, close to the expected count of 11.2. This indicates that democratic parenting is generally associated with medium CU Traits. The majority of respondents with permissive parenting have CU Traits in the medium category (9 respondents or 3.8% of the total), with an expected count of 9.9. Only two respondents (0.8%) fall into the low category, and none fall into the high category, consistent with the expected count. This suggests that permissive parenting is also generally associated with medium CU Traits.

Overall, the distribution of CU Traits shows that authoritarian, democratic, and permissive parenting styles are mostly associated with medium CU Traits. Democratic parenting has a greater distribution in the medium CU Traits category, while permissive and authoritarian parenting also show the same tendency but in smaller numbers. No parenting style category shows many respondents with high CU Traits, indicating that high CU Traits are rare in this sample.

Table 4. Categorization of Callous Unemotional Traits Based on Parenting Style

Parenting Style		Callous Unemotional Traits			Total
		Low	Medium	High
Authoritarian	Count	4	52	1	57
	Expected Count	5.6	26.0	0.3	57.0
	% of Total	1.7%	22.0%	0.4%	24,2%
Democratic	Count	12	103	0	115
	Expected Count	11.2	103.3	0.5	115.0
	% of Total	5,1%	43.6%	0.0%	48,7%
Permissive	Count	2	9	0	11
	Expected Count	1.1	9.9	0	11.0
	% of Total	0,8%	3.8%	0.0%	4,7%

Table 5 presents the results of the ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) test used to examine the differences between groups. The ANOVA results show that there are significant differences in Callous Unemotional traits among students raised with authoritarian, democratic, and permissive parenting styles (p < 0.05). With an F value of 2256.323 and a p-value of 0.000, this indicates that the variability observed between groups is much greater than the variability within groups, suggesting that the groups tested have significantly different means. Further analysis may be required to determine where the significant differences occur between these groups.

Table 5. Anova Test Result

	Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Between Groups	375056.042	3	125018.681	2256.323	.000
Within Groups	52083.669	940	55.408
Total	427139.712	943

Table 6 presents the results of the Post Hoc Test using the Games-Howell method, which is used to determine the mean differences between various parenting styles (Authoritarian, Democratic, Permissive). The results of the Post Hoc Test (Games-Howell) show that there are significant differences between all parenting styles at the 0.05 significance level. The mean difference of -4.411 between authoritarian and democratic parenting indicates that the average score in authoritarian parenting is significantly lower than in democratic parenting. The 95% confidence interval (-6.00 to -2.82) does not include zero, confirming the significance of this difference.

The mean difference of 4.381 between authoritarian and permissive parenting indicates that the average score in authoritarian parenting is significantly higher than in permissive parenting. The 95% confidence interval (2.85 to 5.91) does not include zero, confirming the significance of this difference. The mean difference of 4.411 between democratic and authoritarian parenting indicates that the average score in democratic parenting is significantly higher than in authoritarian parenting. The 95% confidence interval (2.82 to 6.00) does not include zero, confirming the significance of this difference.

Table 6. Post Hoc Test (Games-Howell) *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

(I) Parenting Style	(J) Parenting Style	Mean Difference (I-J)	Std. Error	Sig.	95% Confidence Interval
					Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Authoritarian	Democratic	-4.411*	.675	.000	-6.00	-2.82
	Permissive	4.381*	.651	.000	2.85	5.91
Democratic	Authoritarian	4.411*	.675	.000	2.82	6.00
	Permissive	8.792*	.614	.000	7.35	10.24
Permissive	Authoritarian	-4.381*	.651	.000	-5.91	-2.85
	Democratic	-8.792*	.614	.000	-10.24	-7.35

The mean difference of 8.792 between democratic and permissive parenting indicates that the average score in democratic parenting is significantly higher than in permissive parenting. The 95% confidence interval (7.35 to 10.24) does not include zero, confirming the significance of this difference. The mean difference of -4.381 between permissive and authoritarian parenting indicates that the average score in permissive parenting is significantly lower than in authoritarian parenting. The 95% confidence interval (-5.91 to -2.85) does not include zero, confirming the significance of this difference.

The mean difference of -8.792 between permissive and democratic parenting indicates that the average score in permissive parenting is significantly lower than in democratic parenting. The 95% confidence interval (-10.24 to -7.35) does not include zero, confirming the significance of this difference. The Post Hoc Test results indicate that each type of parenting style has significant differences in relation to Callous Unemotional Traits. Democratic parenting has the highest mean score, followed by authoritarian parenting, and permissive parenting has the lowest mean score.

These analysis results indicate that there are significant differences in the tendency of Callous Unemotional traits based on the type of parenting style. These findings underscore the importance of parenting in the development of adolescents' emotional and social traits, providing practical implications for parents and educators in developing effective parenting strategies. Further analysis and discussion of these results will be provided in the following section.

Discussion

This study reveals significant differences in the tendency of Callous-Unemotional (CU) Traits in early adolescents based on their perceptions of parental parenting styles. These findings are consistent with the literature that suggests parenting practices have a significant impact on the development of CU traits in children and adolescents (Frick et al., 2014; Waller et al., 2017).

The study found that authoritarian parenting tends to produce children with higher CU traits. This can be explained by Baumrind's theory (1991), which posits that authoritarian parenting, characterized by strict control and limited freedom for the child, can hinder emotional and social development. This parenting style is often associated with difficulties in emotional regulation and a lack of independent decision-making ability (Waller et al., 2017). The researcher should provide a more detailed explanation of the mechanisms by which authoritarian parenting can increase the risk of developing CU traits, including studies that support these findings (Goulter et al., 2021).

On the other hand, permissive parenting was found to have a minor impact on increasing CU traits. Although this parenting style lacks control and supervision, the freedom granted to the child may lead to more responsible behavior if the child utilizes this freedom appropriately (Santosa & Marheni, 2013). The author needs to explain how individual differences in responses to the freedom provided by permissive parenting can influence the development of CU traits (Hawes et al., 2011).

Democratic parenting showed the highest influence on CU traits. This parenting style encourages children to be independent and socially responsible, which ideally should reduce CU traits. However, this study's findings contradict some previous studies that suggest positive parenting tends to reduce CU traits (Muratori et al., 2016). The author should provide a more detailed explanation of other possible factors that could influence these results, such as cultural context or individual variations in the perception of parenting (Kotchick & Forehand, 2002).

In addition to parenting styles, gender was also found to be a factor influencing CU traits. The study results show that male adolescents tend to have higher CU traits compared to female adolescents, consistent with previous research (Essau et al., 2006; López-Romero et al., 2018). The author needs to explain how gender differences in socialization and emotional development may affect the level of CU traits.

Genetic factors also play a significant role in the development of CU traits. Research suggests that CU traits can be inherited and are strongly influenced by genetic factors (Viding et al., 2005; Hyde et al., 2016). The author should include a discussion of how the interaction between genetic factors and environmental factors, particularly parenting styles, can increase or decrease the risk of developing CU traits (Waller et al., 2016).

These study findings have important implications for parenting practices and educational interventions. The author should provide more specific recommendations on how parents can adopt more effective parenting strategies to prevent the development of CU traits in their children. For example, promoting a balanced parenting style between control and freedom, as well as providing consistent emotional support, can help reduce the risk of CU traits (Lui et al., 2016; Waller & Hyde, 2017).

Overall, this study provides a valuable contribution to the literature on parenting and the development of CU traits in adolescents. The author needs to strengthen the discussion by including more relevant literature and explaining the practical implications of these research findings in more depth. This will help readers understand the importance of the study results and how these findings can be applied in the context of parenting and education.

Research Limitations and Recommendations for Future Studies

This study has several limitations that need to be considered. First, the sample used in this study was limited to six middle schools in Pati Regency, with a total of 236 student respondents. Although this number is sufficient for statistical analysis, the geographical limitation and the number of schools involved may not fully represent the broader diversity of the adolescent population in Indonesia. Therefore, future research should include a larger and more geographically and demographically diverse sample to enhance the generalizability of the findings. Second, the data collection method relied on self-reported questionnaires filled out by the respondents, which are susceptible to response biases such as social desirability bias. Data based on adolescents' perceptions of their parents' parenting styles may not always be accurate or objective. To address this, future studies could employ multiple data collection methods, such as direct observations, in-depth interviews, or assessments from teachers and parents, to provide a more comprehensive and objective perspective.

Additionally, the cross-sectional research design used in this study only allows for the examination of relationships between variables at a single point in time, making it impossible to draw conclusions about causal relationships or the temporal development of Callous-Unemotional Traits. Longitudinal studies are needed to understand the development of CU Traits over time and to identify potential causal factors. Such designs would allow researchers to observe changes and development in CU Traits and assess the long-term impact of parenting styles. Another limitation of this study is the lack of control over other variables that may influence the development of CU Traits, such as peer influence, genetic factors, and social environment, which could affect the study's internal validity. Future research should consider these factors and use more complex statistical analyses, such as path analysis or structural equation modeling, to help identify causal relationships among these variables.

Another recommendation for future research is to focus on developing and evaluating intervention programs for parents aimed at promoting positive parenting practices and reducing CU Traits in adolescents. These intervention studies would provide practical contributions that could be directly applied in the community. By addressing these limitations and following the recommended research approaches, future studies could offer a deeper and broader understanding of the relationship between parental parenting styles and Callous-Unemotional Traits in adolescents.

Conclusion and Recommendation

This study demonstrates that there are significant differences in the tendency of Callous-Unemotional (CU) Traits in early adolescents based on their perceptions of parental parenting styles. Adolescents with authoritarian parenting tend to have higher CU Traits compared to those raised with democratic and permissive parenting styles. Conversely, democratic parenting tends to produce adolescents with lower CU Traits, while permissive parenting shows varied results. These findings support Baumrind's (1991) theory that authoritarian parenting, characterized by strict control and limited freedom, can hinder a child's emotional and social development.

The practical implications of this study emphasize the importance of developing effective parenting strategies by parents and educators to reduce the tendency of CU Traits in adolescents. For instance, adopting a balanced parenting style that combines control and freedom, along with providing consistent emotional support, can help reduce the risk of CU Traits. This study has several limitations, including the sample size being limited to six middle schools in Pati Regency, the self-report-based data collection method prone to bias, and the cross-sectional research design, which does not allow for causal conclusions. Future studies should involve a larger and more geographically diverse sample, use longitudinal methods to understand the development of CU Traits over time, and incorporate various data collection methods such as direct observation and in-depth interviews to provide a more comprehensive and objective perspective.

Overall, this study makes a significant contribution to the literature on parenting and the development of CU Traits in adolescents. The findings offer new insights into how different types of parental parenting styles influence the development of CU Traits in adolescents and provide practical guidance for parents and educators in developing effective parenting strategies.