Parenting Self-Efficacy in Preventing Sexual Abuse in Children Aged 4-7 Years (A Comparative Study on Fathers and Mothers)

Abstract

Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) is a serious issue in Indonesia with negative impacts on child development. Therefore, early prevention of CSA is an essential aspect of parenting. While the responsibility of parenting is often more focused on mothers, the role of fathers is also crucial, especially in the context of CSA prevention. This study aims to investigate the differences between fathers' and mothers' Parenting Self Efficacy (PSE) in preventing CSA in children aged 4-7 years. This comparative study involved 111 parents (79 mothers and 32 fathers) with children aged 4-7 years. Incidental sampling technique was used in this research. Data were collected using a PSE scale in preventing CSA, consisting of 31 valid items with a significance level between 0.50-1.00 and a reliability of 0.758. Data analysis was conducted using the Mann Whitney U-Test. The analysis showed a significance value of 0.974. Since this value is greater than 0.05, the hypothesis stating that mothers have higher PSE than fathers in preventing CSA is rejected.

Abstrak: Kekerasan seksual terhadap anak (KSA) merupakan masalah serius di Indonesia yang berdampak negatif pada perkembangan anak. Oleh karena itu, pencegahan KSA sejak dini menjadi aspek penting dalam pengasuhan. Meskipun tugas pengasuhan seringkali lebih difokuskan pada ibu, peran ayah juga sangat penting, terutama dalam konteks pencegahan KSA.Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menginvestigasi perbedaan antara Parenting Self Efficacy (PSE) ayah dan ibu dalam mencegah KSA pada anak usia 4-7 tahun. Studi komparatif ini melibatkan 111 orangtua (79 ibu dan 32 ayah) dengan anak berusia 4-7 tahun. Teknik sampling insidental digunakan dalam penelitian ini. Data dikumpulkan menggunakan skala PSE dalam mencegah KSA, yang terdiri dari 31 item valid dengan tingkat signifikansi antara 0,50-1,00 dan reliabilitas sebesar 0,758. Analisis data dilakukan menggunakan uji Mann Whitney U-Test. Hasil analisis menunjukkan nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,974. Karena nilai ini lebih besar dari 0,05, hipotesis yang menyatakan bahwa ibu memiliki PSE lebih tinggi daripada ayah dalam mencegah KSA ditolak.

Introduction

The Department of Women's Empowerment, Child Protection, Population Control, and Family Planning (DP3AP2KB) of Central Java Province reported that from 2016 to 2019, child abuse cases in Central Java were predominantly of a sexual nature. There were 996 cases of child sexual abuse in 2016, followed by 710 in 2017, 734 in 2018, and 700 in 2019. In the first half of 2020 alone, there were already 242 cases of sexual abuse out of a total of 464 child abuse cases. Although the numbers have decreased since 2016, they remain alarmingly high, with sexual abuse cases being the most prevalent compared to other types of abuse.

Kritsberg (cited in Paramastri et al., 2011) stated that child sexual abuse (CSA) can have both short-term and long-term impacts on victims. Short-term effects can include excessive fear, withdrawal from the environment, internal pressure, prolonged stress, physical pain, genital injuries, and genital bleeding. Long-term effects can manifest as trauma related to situations or conditions that facilitate sexual abuse, excessive suspicion, antisocial behavior, aggression, or even committing CSA as a form of revenge.

CSA often occurs unbeknownst to parents. Children typically fear reporting their experiences. Perpetrators might use threats, persuasion, and sympathy to lure children or prevent them from disclosing the abuse to their parents (Paramastri et al., 2011). One study indicated that such abuse cases are often linked to the victim's lack of knowledge due to their young age and the absence of parental guidance on personal safety (Maslihah, 2013). Another study aimed to educate elementary school students about CSA by creating a booklet as a preventive medium against child sexual abuse. The results showed that the booklet was suitable for 5th-grade students, considering the number of pages, color design, font type and size, paper quality, message substance, and depth of content (Paramastri et al., 2011).

Therefore, it is crucial for parents to take preventive measures against Child Sexual Abuse (CSA). Teaching children how to prevent CSA is actually a primary responsibility of parents and is part of the broader scope of parenting. Both mothers and fathers share this responsibility. This is stated in Article 1, Paragraph (4) of Indonesian Law No. 35 of 2014 concerning Child Protection, which defines parents as either biological fathers and/or mothers, stepfathers and/or stepmothers, or adoptive fathers and/or mothers. However, in practice, the burden of parenting often falls more heavily on mothers. A study indicates that among married couples in Java, there is a prevailing view that child-rearing is primarily a mother's responsibility. This is because mothers generally have more time to supervise and educate their children compared to fathers (Putri & Lestari, 2015).

A study on mothers' perceptions of fathers' involvement in parenting was conducted titled "Mothers' Perception of Fathers' Involvement in Early Childhood Parenting." The results indicated that mothers might not fully recognize the importance of fathers' involvement in child-rearing for the holistic development of the child. Some even felt that a father's absence in parenting wasn't detrimental to the child's development. However, Hidayati, Kaloeti, and Karyono (2011) argued that a heightened awareness of shared parenting responsibilities can optimize a child's education, especially regarding the child's sexual issues. If parents feel embarrassed discussing sexual matters, it can negatively impact the child.

Parenting competence is multidimensional, encompassing various cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. One of the primary cognitive elements of parenting competence is parenting self-efficacy (PSE). Parenting self-efficacy is defined as parents' assessment of their competence in their role as parents or their perception of their ability to positively influence their children's behavior and development (Coleman & Karraker, 2000). Jonez and Prinz (2005) also stated that parents with high PSE levels are more likely to succeed in their parenting roles, and their children are also likely to develop equally good PSE in the future.

Based on a preliminary study, both fathers and mothers still have differing views on CSA prevention. The results also concluded that mothers play a more significant role in teaching self-protection to children. This is evident from the majority of mothers stating that teaching self-protection is primarily a mother's responsibility. This is further evidenced by the higher enthusiasm among mothers compared to fathers, as seen from the higher number of mothers filling out the researcher's distributed Google form compared to fathers. Therefore, further research is needed on the roles of fathers and mothers in teaching children self-protection from CSA. Based on this background, the researcher intends to study the level of PSE in fathers and mothers in preventing CSA in children. Hence, the researcher titled the study "Parenting Self-Efficacy in Parents in Preventing Child Sexual Abuse (A Comparative Study on Mothers and Fathers)."

Methods

Study Design and Rationale

This research employs a cross-sectional, quantitative methodology with a comparative design framework. Comparative research, as defined by Arikunto (2010:6), serves to contrast conditions across different settings to discern whether similarities or differences exist, and if the latter, to ascertain which condition is superior. The choice of a comparative design is motivated by the study's objective to explore the differential roles of mothers and fathers in Parenting Self-Efficacy (PSE) for preventing Child Sexual Abuse (CSA).

Variables and Operational Definitions

Dependent Variable: The dependent variable is Parenting Self-Efficacy (PSE) in CSA prevention. PSE is operationalized as the parents' self-reported confidence in their ability to execute effective parenting strategies aimed at minimizing or averting the risk of CSA in their children.

Independent Variable: The independent variable is the parental role, which is categorized into two groups: mothers and fathers. This variable encompasses a range of attitudes and behaviors that parents exhibit in nurturing their children, both within the domestic sphere and in external environments.

Instrument Development and Validation

Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire, specifically the Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale in Preventing CSA. This scale comprises 31 items and was developed based on Harty's (2009) six parenting domains: showing affection and empathy, engaging in play, facilitating routines, establishing discipline strategies, providing appropriate activities for learning and development, and promoting communication interaction. The scale also incorporates Bandura's four sources of self-efficacy: direct experience, vicarious experience, emotional state, and verbal persuasion. Prior to its use, the instrument underwent rigorous validation procedures to ensure its reliability and validity, achieving a reliability coefficient of 0.758.

Sampling Strategy and Participant Characteristics

The target population for this study consisted of parents who have children aged between 4 and 7 years and cohabit with both their child and partner. An incidental sampling technique was employed, yielding a final sample size of 111 parents, of which 79 were mothers and 32 were fathers.

Data Analysis Plan

Data were subjected to statistical analysis using specialized software. The Mann Whitney U-Test was selected as the statistical test of choice to compare the PSE levels between mothers and fathers. This non-parametric test was chosen due to its robustness in handling ordinal or non-normally distributed data.

Results and Discussion

This study was conducted on 111 participants, consisting of 79 fathers and 32 mothers. The characteristics of each subject are displayed in the following table.

Table 1. Categorization of Parenting Self Efficacy (PSE) in Preventing Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) among Parents (N = 111)

Characteristics	Father		Mother
	F	%	F	%
Age
Early adulthood (18-40 years)	25	78,12	72	91,13
Middle adulthood (41-60)	7	21,87	7	8,86
Total	32	100	79	100
Education
Elementary school	2	6,25	5	6,32
Middle school equivalent	2	6,25	9	11,39
high school equivalent	10	31,25	25	31,64
Diploma	1	3,12	6	7,59
S1	12	37,5	22	27,84
S2	3	9,37	8	10,12
Etc	2		4	5,06
Total	32	100%	79	100%
Occupation
Housewife	-	-	36	45,56
Self-employed	17	53,12	18	22,7
Teacher	1	3,12	7	8,86
Lecturer	2	6,25	4	5,06
civil servant	1	3,12	6	7,59
Laborer	3	9,37	-	-
Etc	8	25	8	10,12
Total	32	100%	79	100%
Gender of child
Man	12	37,5	27	34,17
Woman	10	31,25	34	43,03
Male-Female	10	31,25	18	22,7
Total	32	100%	79	100%

Table 2. Categorization of PSE in Preventing CSA among Parents (N = 111)

Subject	Classification	Frequency	Percentage
Parenting Self Efficacy	Low	2	1,80
	Pretty low	10	9
	Currently	14	12,61
	High enough	42	37,84
	High	43	38,78

Table 3. Categorization of PSE in Preventing CSA among Fathers and Mothers (N= 32 (fathers) and 79 (mothers)

Subject	Classification	Frequency	Percentage
Father	Low	1	3,12
	Pretty low	4	12,5
	Currently	9	15,62
	High enough	8	25
	High	14	43,75
Mother	Low	1	1,26
	Pretty low	6	7,6
	Currently	9	28,12
	High enough	34	43,04
	High	29	36,71

From Table 1, it can be observed that most fathers and mothers fall within the adult age range. Their educational levels also vary, ranging from elementary school to postgraduate degrees. In terms of occupation, the majority of fathers are self-employed, accounting for 53.12%, while most mothers are homemakers, making up 45.57%. The following table shows the categorization for Parenting Self Efficacy in preventing child sexual abuse in general.

The empirical results for the variable Parenting Self Efficacy in Preventing Child Sexual Abuse among the 111 parents fall within the "quite high" category. This is evidenced by the empirical mean score of 135.89, which theoretically falls within the interval 121.42 < X ? 147.26, categorizing it as quite high. Therefore, it can be concluded that the general picture of Parenting Self Efficacy in Preventing Child Sexual Abuse among parents is quite high (Table 2).

Table 3 shows the percentage of each PSE category for fathers and mothers. Data analysis reveals that the empirical mean for fathers is quite high, with a score of 133.63. This is also true for the categorization of parenting domains, namely Showing affection and empathy, Establishing discipline strategies, and Providing appropriate activities for learning and development. This suggests that fathers are quite involved in child-rearing, supported by a study indicating that PSE is a motivating factor for someone to get involved in their child's education (Retnaningtya and Paramitha, 2015).

In terms of self-efficacy sources, namely Direct Experience and Vicarious Experience, the data for fathers fall within the high category. This indicates that fathers also learn from others and pay attention to how they raise their children. In this context, fathers learn from teachers or other parents to provide sexual abuse prevention to their children. This is consistent with the study by Montezuma (2020), which states that learning experiences, either from one's own experiences or those of others, enable both participants in his study to evaluate their roles as fathers, including when they have to be single fathers.

This is also evident in the mean results of the parenting domains, namely engaging in play, facilitating routines, and promoting communication interaction, which fall into the "quite high" category. At least some fathers are already involved in teaching the prevention of sexual abuse to children while playing, facilitating children with routine prevention activities, and also teaching them how to behave when with people who have the potential to commit sexual abuse. Brewer, Brown, & Migdal (cited in Maimunah, 2017) state that although many people consider mothers to be the most ideal individuals for providing sex education, fathers' participation is equally important. Boys can learn from their fathers what the appropriate role is as a man, and girls can learn about men's responsibilities in the family and society.

Meanwhile, Parenting Self-Efficacy in Preventing Child Sexual Abuse, conducted on 79 mother subjects, empirically falls into the "quite high" category. This can be seen from the empirical mean score showing a score of 136.81, which, when viewed from the theoretical category, falls within the interval 121.42 < X ? 147.26, entering the "quite high" category. Most mothers in this study are in the early adult age range, so they already have sufficient competence to parent. They are already capable of understanding the child's mood, playing with the child, teaching something to the child, setting rules, and creating a routine schedule. These results are consistent with the research by Fajriyah et al. (2019), which states that adult-aged mothers have high Parenting Self-Efficacy. Their research mentions that although teenage mothers may have high Parenting Self-Efficacy, some still feel less capable of understanding the child's feelings when hurt or providing comfort to the child when they are frustrated and scared compared to adult-aged mothers.

Mothers are the ones who give birth to and raise children. This makes mothers interact more frequently with children. The closeness that mothers have makes it easier for them to communicate about preventing sexual abuse. This is supported by the research findings of Sugiasih (2011), which concluded that there is a positive attitude towards sexual education for children aged 3-5 years among mothers. This attitude can then become a driving force for mothers to provide sexual education.

Viewed from the source of self-efficacy, namely direct experience, the research data generally also shows a high category. Most mothers have carried out several activities to prevent sexual abuse to their children. Such as asking them to recount the events they experience every day, singing together about permissible and impermissible touches, and discussing rules about personal matters. This is very important, as Maslihah (2013) states that the cases that occur in her research subjects are not unrelated to the subjects' lack of knowledge at a young age and the lack of parental guidance on security to protect personal boundaries.

The results of data analysis using the Mann Whitney U-Test will be presented in the following table.

Table 4. Hypothesis Test Results

		Parenting Self Efficacy
	Mann-Whitney U	1259.000
Parenting Self Efficacy	Wilcoxon W	1787.000
	Z	-.033
	Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)	.974

Based on Table 4, it can be seen that the U value is 1259 and the W value is 1787. When converted to the Z value, the result is -0.033. Then the significance value is 0.974 > 0.05. The hypothesis will be accepted if the significance value < 0.05, and the hypothesis will be rejected if the significance value > 0.05. This means that the research hypothesis stating "There is a difference in Parenting Self Efficacy in preventing sexual abuse of children aged 4-7 years, mothers have higher PSE than fathers" is rejected. In other words, there is no significant difference in the level of Parenting Self Efficacy in Preventing CSA between Fathers and Mothers.

In essence, both fathers and mothers share the responsibility of parenting. Their involvement in child-rearing has a significant impact on child development, especially in protecting children from the threat of sexual abuse. As stated by Ligina, Mardhiyah, & Nurhidayah (2018), the role of both parents in preventing sexual abuse is crucial because parents are the closest people to the child. Their research also concluded that the role of parents in preventing child sexual abuse in school-aged children is generally good. However, in each sub-variable, such as the role as an educator, motivator, role model, supervisor, counselor, and communicator, there are still some that are not good.

When viewed from the sources of self-efficacy, both fathers and mothers fall into the "quite high" category, specifically in the sources of direct experience, vicarious experience, and emotional state. These three sources are the supporting factors for the PSE results in fathers and mothers. However, in the source of verbal persuasion, it still shows a moderate category. This means that the PSE in fathers and mothers has not yet reached the high category due to the lack of verbal feedback they receive from people around them. Verbal persuasion is one of the factors that can influence the level of parental PSE. As stated by Coleman and Karraker (2000), some factors that influence PSE include verbal persuasion, social support, and marriage.

In addition, the research data also shows that in the domains of facilitating routines, establishing discipline strategies, providing appropriate activities for learning and development, and promoting communication interaction, both fathers and mothers are also in the "quite high" category. This indicates that fathers and mothers are already quite well involved in parenting. For example, by facilitating children's knowledge and skills in recognizing parts of their bodies, then applying discipline to protect the child, providing various activities and learning resources for sexual education for children, and enabling children to reject invitations or gifts from others who are close to them, even to avoid sexual abuse.

Conclusion and Recommendation

Based on the inferential analysis concerning the differences in Parenting Self Efficacy (PSE) in preventing child sexual abuse (CSA) among fathers and mothers with children aged 4-7 years, it can be concluded that there is no significant difference between fathers and mothers, and the PSE in mothers is not higher than that in fathers. This implies that both fathers and mothers possess similar levels of Parenting Self Efficacy in preventing child sexual abuse.

Therefore, considering the limitations of the existing research, the author wishes to offer recommendations for future researchers. Subsequent researchers could employ random sampling techniques, stratified based on regions, types of employment, and specific age groups, to achieve more accurate results. Future studies could also focus on married couples to enhance the precision of the findings. Moreover, as no significant difference was observed between fathers and mothers, future researchers might reconsider examining the differences in Parenting Self Efficacy in preventing child sexual abuse between the two groups.